Bhakti Movement
An important landmark in the cultural history of medieval India was
the silent revolution in society brought about by a galaxy of
socio-religious reformers, a revolution known as the Bhakti Movement.
This movement was responsible for many rites and rituals associated with
the worship of God by Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs of Indian subcontinent.
For example, Kirtan at a Hindu Temple, Qawaali at a Dargah (by
Muslims), and singing of Gurbani at a Gurdwara are all derived from the
Bhakti movement of medieval India (800-1700). The leader of this Hindu
revivalist movement was Shankaracharya, a great thinker and a
distinguished philosopher. And this movement was propounded by Chaitanya
Mahaprabhu, Namadeva, Tukaram, Jayadeva. The movement's major
achievement was its abolition of idol worship.
The leader of the bhakti movement focusing on the Lord as Rama was
Ramananda. Very little is known about him, but he is believed to have
lived in the first half of the 15th century. He taught that
Lord Rama is the supreme Lord, and that salvation could be attained only
through love for and devotion to him, and through the repetition of his
sacred name.
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu was an ascetic Hindu monk and social reformer in 16th century Bengal. A great proponent of loving devotion for God, bhakti yoga, Chaitanya worshiped the Lord in the form of Krishna.
Sri Ramanuja Acharya was an Indian philosopher and is recognized as
the most important saint of Sri Vaishnavism. Ramananda brought to North
India what Ramanuja did in South India. He raised his voice against the
increasing formalism of the orthodox cult and founded a new school of
Vaishnavism based on the gospel of love and devotion. His most
outstanding contribution is the abolition of distinctions of caste among
his followers.
Followers of Bhakti movement in 12th and 13th
Century included saints such as Bhagat Namdev, and Saint Kabir Das, who
insisted on the devotional singing of praises of lord through their own
compositions.
Guru Nanak, the first Sikh Guru and founder of the Sikhism, too was a
Nirguna Bhakti Saint and social reformer. He was opposed to all
distinctions of caste as well as the religious rivalries and rituals. He
preached the unity of God and condemned formalism and ritualism of both
Islam and Hinduism. Guru Nanak's gospel was for all men. He proclaimed
their equality in all respects.
The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries continued to witness the rise
of many religious reformers. The exponent of the Rama cult and the
Krishna cult among the Vaishnavas branched off into a number of sects
and creeds. The leading light of the Rama cult was saint-poet Tulsidas.
He was a very great scholar and had made a profound study of Indian
philosophy and literature. His great poem, 'Ramacharitamanasa',
popularly called Tulsi-krita Ramayana is very popular among the Hindu
devotees. He set before the people the image of Sri Rama as all
virtuous, all powerful, the Lord of the World, and the very embodiment
of the Supreme Reality (Parabrahma).
The followers of the Krishna cult founded the Radha Ballabhi sect
under Hari Vamsa in 1585 A.D. Sur Das wrote 'Sursagar' in Brajbhasha,
which is full of verses of the charm of Lord Krishna and his beloved
Radha.
Sufism
The terms Sufi, Wali, Darvesh and Faqir are used for Muslim saints
who attempted to achieve development of their intuitive faculties
through ascetic exercises, contemplation, renunciation and self-denial.
By the 12th century A.D., Sufism had become a universal
aspect of Islamic social life as its influence extended over almost the
entire Muslim community.
Sufism represents the inward or esoteric side of Islam or the
mystical dimension of Muslim religion. However, the Sufi saints
transcending all religious and communal distinctions, worked for
promoting the interest of humanity at large. The Sufis were a class of
philosophers remarkable for their religious catholicity. Sufis regarded
God as the supreme beauty and believed that one must admire it, take
delight in His thought and concentrate his attention on Him only. They
believed that God is 'Mashuq' and Sufis are the 'Ashiqs'.
Sufism crystallized itself into various 'Silsilahs' or orders. The 4
most popular among these were Chistis, Suhrawardis, Qadiriyahs and
Naqshbandis.
Sufism took roots in both rural and urban areas and exercised a deep
social, political and cultural influence on the masses. It rebelled
against all forms of religious formalism, orthodoxy, falsehood and
hypocrisy and endeavoured to create a new world order in which spiritual
bliss was the only and the ultimate goal. At a time when struggle for
political power was the prevailing madness, the Sufi saints reminded men
of their moral obligations. To a world torn by strife and conflict they
tried to bring peace and harmony. The most important contribution of
Sufism is that it helped to blunt the edge of Hindu-Muslim prejudices by
forging the feelings of solidarity and brotherhood between these two
religious communities.
The Mughal Empire
In India, the Mughal Empire was one of the greatest empires ever. The
Mughal Empire ruled hundreds of millions of people. India became united
under one rule, and had very prosperous cultural and political years
during the Mughal rule. There were many Muslim and Hindu kingdoms split
all throughout India until the founders of the Mughal Empire came. There
were some men such as Babar, grandson to the Great Asian conqueror
Tamerlane and the conqueror Genghis Khan from the northern region of
Ganges, river valley, who decided to take over Khyber, and eventually,
all of India.
Babar (1526-1530): the great grandson of Tamerlane
and Genghis Khan, was the first Mughal emperor in India. He confronted
and defeated Lodhi in 1526 at the first battle of Panipat, and so came
to establish the Mughal Empire in India. Babar ruled until 1530, and was
succeeded by his son Humayun.
Humayun (1530-1540 and 1555-1556): the eldest son of
Babar, succeeded his father and became the second emperor of the Mughal
Empire. He ruled India for nearly a decade but was ousted by Sher Shah
Suri, the Afghan ruler. Humayun wandered for about 15 years after his
defeat. Meanwhile, Sher Shah Suri died and Humayun was able to defeat
his successor, Sikandar Suri and regain his crown of the Hindustan.
However, soon after, he died in 1556 at a young age of 48 years.
Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545): was an Afghan leader who
took over the Mughal Empire after defeating Humayun in 1540. Sher Shah
occupied the throne of Delhi for not more than five years, but his reign
proved to be a landmark in the Sub-continent. As a king, he has several
achievements in his credit. He established an efficient public
administration. He set up a revenue collection system based on the
measurement of land. Justice was provided to the common man. Numerous
civil works were carried out during his short reign; planting of trees,
wells and building of Sarai (inns) for travellers was done. Roads were
laid; it was under his rule that the Grand Trunk road from Delhi to
Kabul was built. The currency was also changed to finely minted silver
coins called Dam. However, Sher Shah did not survive long after his
accession on the throne and died in 1545 after a short reign of five
years.
Akbar (1556-1605): Humayun's heir, Akbar, was born
in exile and was only 13 years old when his father died. Akbar's reign
holds a certain prominence in history; he was the ruler who actually
fortified the foundations of the Mughal Empire. After a series of
conquests, he managed to subdue most of India. Areas not under the
empire were designated as tributaries. He also adopted a conciliatory
policy towards the Rajputs, hence reducing any threat from them. Akbar
was not only a great conqueror, but a capable organizer and a great
administrator as well. He set up a host of institutions that proved to
be the foundation of an administrative system that operated even in
British India. Akbar's rule also stands out due to his liberal policies
towards the non-Muslims, his religious innovations, the land revenue
system and his famous Mansabdari system. Akbar's Mansabdari system
became the basis of Mughal military organization and civil
administration.
Akbar died in 1605, nearly 50 years after his ascension to the
throne, and was buried outside of Agra at Sikandra. His son Jehangir
then assumed the throne.
Jehangir: Akbar was succeeded by his son, Salim, who
took the title of Jehangir, meaning "Conqueror of the World". He
married Mehr-un-Nisa whom he gave the title of Nur Jahan (light of the
world). He loved her with blind passion and handed over the complete
reins of administration to her. He expanded the empire through the
addition of Kangra and Kistwar and consolidated the Mughal rule in
Bengal. Jehangir lacked the political enterprise of his father Akbar.
But he was an honest man and a tolerant ruler. He strived to reform
society and was tolerant towards Hindus, Christians and Jews. However,
relations with Sikhs were strained, and the fifth of the ten Sikh gurus,
Arjun Dev, was executed at Jehangir's orders for giving aid and comfort
to Khusrau, Jehangir's rebellious son. Art, literature, and
architecture prospered under Jehangir's rule, and the Mughal gardens in
Srinagar remain an enduring testimony to his artistic taste. He died in
1627.
Shah Jahan: Jehangir was succeeded by his second son
Khurram in 1628. Khurram took the name of Shah Jahan, i.e. the Emperor
of the World. He further expanded his Empire to Kandhar in the north and
conquered most of Southern India. The Mughal Empire was at its zenith
during Shah Jahan's rule. This was due to almost 100 years of
unparalleled prosperity and peace. As a result, during this reign, the
world witnessed the unique development of arts and culture of the Mughal
Empire. Shah Jahan has been called the "architect king". The Red Fort
and the Jama Masjid, both in Delhi, stand out as towering achievements
of both civil engineering and art. Yet above all else, Shah Jahan is
remembered today for the Taj Mahal, the massive white marble mausoleum constructed for his wife Mumtaz Mahal along the banks of the Yamuna River in Agra.
Aurangzeb: Aurangzeb ascended the throne in 1658 and
ruled supreme till 1707. Thus Aurangzeb ruled for 50 years, matching
Akbar's reign in longevity. But unfortunately he kept his five sons away
from the royal court with the result that none of them was trained in
the art of government. This proved to be very damaging for the Mughals
later on. During his 50 years of rule, Aurangzeb tried to fulfill his
ambition of bringing the entire Sub-continent under one rule. It was
under him that the Mughal Empire reached its peak in matter of area. He
worked hard for years but his health broke down in the end. He left
behind no personal wealth when he died in 1707, at the age of 90 years.
With his death, the forces of disintegration set in and the mighty
Mughal empire started collapsing.
Rise of the Sikh Power
Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak Dev at the beginning of the sixteenth century. Guru Nanak was born on April 15, 1469 in the Western Punjab village of Talwandi. Even as a child, he was given to deep thinking with no interest in worldly life. At the age of thirty, he got enlightenment. Thereafter, he travelled almost the whole of the country and went over to Mecca and Baghdad, preaching his message. On his death he was followed by nine other Gurus in succession.Guru Angad Dev Ji (1504-1552) was Guru for thirteen years (1539-1552). He created a new script gurmukhi and gave the Sikhs a written language. After his death Guru Amar Das Ji (1479-1574) followed in succession. He showed great devotion and made the langar an integral part of Sikhism. Guru Ram Das Ji took over as the fourth Guru, he composed hymns, which were later incorporated in the sacred writings. Guru Arjan Dev Ji became the fifth Guru of Sikhism. He built the world famous Harmandar Sahib, popularly known as the Golden Temple in Amritsar. He also compiled the holy Granth Sahib, a sacred religious book of the Sikhs. Guru Arjan Dev suffered martyrdom in 1606 and was followed by Siri Guru Hargobind, who maintained a standing army and symbolically wore two swords, representing spiritual and temporal power.
Guru Siri Har Rai, the seventh Guru was born in 1630 and spent most of his life in devotional meditation and preaching the teachings of Guru Nanak. He passed away in 1661 and ordained his second son, Harkishan as the Guru. Guru Siri Har Krishan Ji got enlightenment in 1661. He gave his life while serving and healing the epidemic-stricken people in Delhi. The place where he breath his last is the one where, the renowned Gurdwara Bangla Sahib stands in Delhi. Siri Guru Tegh Bahadur became Guru in 1664. When Mughal Governor of Kashmir resorted to forcible conversion of Hindus, Guru Tegh Bahadur decided to fight it out. Gurdwara Sisganj in Delhi stands at the place of Guru Sahib's martyrdom and Gurdwara Rakabganj at the site of his cremation. The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh, was born in 1666 and became guru after the martyrdom of his father Guru Tegh Bahadur. Guru Gobind Singh, at the time of his death invested the 'guru Granth Sahib' as the supreme head of the sikhs, thus bringing the practice of nominating a religious head to a grinding halt.
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj
Chhatrapati Shivaji (1630-1680), the great Maratha hero established the Maratha Empire in the Deccan fighting the powerful Mughals who were ruling India then. He motivated and combined the common man to fight against the domination of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, by inculcating wisdom of pride and nationality in them. Shivaji showed his spirit at the young age of 18, when he overran a number of hill forts near Pune. He raised a strong army and navy, built and renovated forts. A regular element of his campaigns was his use of guerilla warfare.He joined together the Maratha chiefs from Maval, Konkan and Desh regions for the promotion of Maharashtra Dharma and carved out a small kingdom. Shivaji became an inspirational leader to his people and took the responsibility of leadership of the Marathas. The audacious Shivaji provided a thrust to the Marathas and other Hindus with martial tactics, which the Marathas effectively used against the sultans of the peninsula as well as the Mughals.
The small kingdom established by Chhatrapati Shivaji known as "Hindavi Swaraja" (Sovereign Hindu state) grew and stretched from Attock in Northwest India (now in Pakistan) beyond Cuttack in East India, in course of time, to become the strongest power in India. Shivaji died in 1680 at Raigad, at the age of fifty from an attack of dysentery. His premature death at the age of 50 (April, 1680) created a blankness, though his place in Indian history has been documented, recognised and remembered.
The Decline of Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire started disintegrating with the death of Aurangazeb in 1707. His son and successor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was already old when he took the throne and was confronted with one rebellion after another. At that time, the Empire was facing challenges from the Marathas and the British. The inflated taxes and religious intolerance weakened the grip of Mughal Empire. The Mughal Empire was split into numerous independent or semi-independent states. Nadirshah of Iran sacked Delhi in 1739 and exposed the fragility of the power of Mughals. The empire rapidly shrank to the extent of being reduced to only a small district around Delhi. Yet they managed to rule at least some parts of India until 1850s, although they never regained the dignity and authority of their early days. The imperial dynasty became extinct with Bahadur Shah II who was deported to Rangoon by the British on suspicion of assisting the sepoy mutineers. He died there in 1862.This marked the end of the medieval era of Indian history, and gradually, the British paramountcy over the nation increased and gave birth to the Indian struggle for freedom.
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