For a period that has come to be so strongly associated with the Islamic influence and rule in India, Medieval Indian history went for almost three whole centuries under the so-called indigenous rulers, that included the Chalukyas, the Pallavas, the Pandyas, the Rashtrakutas, the Muslims rulers and finally the Mughal Empire. The most important dynasty to emerge in the middle of the 9th century was that of the Cholas.
The Palas
Between 8th and 10th centuries A.D., a number
of powerful empires dominated the eastern and northern parts of India.
The Pala king Dharmpala, son of Gopala reigned from the late 8th century A.D. to early 9th century A.D. Nalanda University and Vikramashila University were founded by Dharmpala.
The Senas
After the decline of the Palas, the Sena dynasty established its rule
in Bengal. The founder of the dynasty was Samantasena. The greatest
ruler of the dynasty was Vijaysena. He conquered the whole of Bengal and
was succeeded by his son Ballalasena. He reigned peacefully but kept
his dominions intact. He was a great scholar and wrote four works
including one on astronomy. The last ruler of this dynasty was
Lakshamanasena under whose reign the Muslims invaded Bengal, and the
empire fell.
The Pratihara
The greatest ruler of the Pratihara dynasty was Mihir Bhoja. He
recovered Kanauj (Kanyakubja) by 836, and it remained the capital of the
Pratiharas for almost a century. He built the city Bhojpal (Bhopal).
Raja Bhoja and other valiant Gujara kings faced and defeated many
attacks of the Arabs from west.
Between 915-918 A.D, Kanauj was attacked by a Rashtrakuta king, who
devastated the city leading to the weakening of the Pratihara Empire. In
1018, Kannauj then ruled by Rajyapala Pratihara was sacked by Mahmud of
Ghazni. The empire broke into independent Rajput states.
The Rashtrakutas
This dynasty, which ruled from Karnataka, is illustrious for several
reasons. They ruled the territory vaster than that of any other dynasty.
They were great patrons of art and literature. The encouragement that
several Rashtrakuta kings provided to education and literature is
unique, and the religious tolerance exercised by them was exemplary.
The Chola Empire of the South
It emerged in the middle of the 9th century A.D., covered a large part of Indian peninsula, as well as parts of Sri Lanka and the Maldives Islands.
The first important ruler to emerge from the dynasty was Rajaraja
Chola I and his son and successor Rajendra Chola. Rajaraja carried
forward the annexation policy of his father. He led armed expedition to
distant lands of Bengal, Odisha and Madhya Pradesh.
The successors of Rajendra I, Rajadhiraj and Rajendra II were brave
rulers who fought fiercely against the later Chalukya kings, but could
not check the decline of Chola Empire. The later Chola kings were weak
and incompetent rulers. The Chola Empire thus lingered on for another
century and a half, and finally came to an end with the invasion of
Malik Kafur in the early 14th century A.D.
The Rise of Islam in South-Asia
The initial entry of Islam into South Asia came in the first century
after the death of the Prophet Muhammad. The Umayyad caliph in Damascus
sent an expedition to Baluchistan and Sindh in 711 led by Muhammad bin
Qasim. He captured Sindh and Multan. Three hundred years after his death
Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, the ferocious leader, led a series of raids
against Rajput kingdoms and rich Hindu temples, and established a base
in Punjab for future incursions. In 1024, the Sultan set out on his last
famous expedition to the southern coast of Kathiawar along the Arabian
Sea, where he sacked the city of Somnath and its renowned Hindu temple.
Muslim Invasion In India
Muhammad Ghori invaded India in 1175 A.D. After the conquest of
Multan and Punjab, he advanced towards Delhi. The brave Rajput chiefs of
northern India headed by Prithvi Raj Chauhan defeated him in the First
Battle of Terrain in 1191 A.D. After about a year, Muhammad Ghori came
again to avenge his defeat. A furious battle was fought again in Terrain
in 1192 A.D. in which the Rajputs were defeated and Prithvi Raj Chauhan
was captured and put to death. The Second Battle of Terrain, however,
proved to be a decisive battle that laid the foundations of Muslim rule
in northern India.
The Delhi Sultanate
The period between 1206 A.D. and 1526 A.D. in India's history is
known as the Delhi Sultanate period. During this period of over three
hundred years, five dynasties ruled in Delhi. These were: the Slave
dynasty (1206-90), Khilji dynasty (1290-1320), Tughlaq dynasty
(1320-1413), Sayyid dynasty (1414-51), and Lodhi dynasty (1451-1526).
The Slave Dynasty
The concept of equality in Islam and Muslim traditions reached its
climax in the history of South Asia when slaves were raised to the
status of Sultan. The Slave Dynasty ruled the Sub-continent for about 84
years. It was the first Muslim dynasty that ruled India. Qutub-ud-din
Aibak, a slave of Muhammad Ghori, who became the ruler after the death
of his master, founded the Slave Dynasty. He was a great builder who
built the majestic 238 feet high stone tower known as Qutub Minar in
Delhi.
The next important king of the Slave dynasty was Shams-ud-din
Iltutmush, who himself was a slave of Qutub-ud-din Aibak. Iltutmush
ruled for around 26 years from 1211 to 1236 and was responsible for
setting the Sultanate of Delhi on strong footings. Razia Begum, the
capable daughter of Iltutmush, was the first and the only Muslim lady
who ever adorned the throne of Delhi. She fought valiantly, but was
defeated and killed.
Finally, the youngest son of Iltutmush, Nasir-ud-din Mahmud became
Sultan in 1245. Though Mahmud ruled India for around 20 years, but
throughout his tenure the main power remained in the hands of Balban,
his Prime Minister. On death of Mahmud, Balban directly took over the
throne and ruled Delhi. During his rule from 1266 to 1287, Balban
consolidated the administrative set up of the empire and completed the
work started by Iltutmush.
The Khilji Dynasty
Following the death of Balban, the Sultanate became weak and there
were number of revolts. This was the period when the nobles placed
Jalal-ud-din Khilji on the throne. This marked the beginning of Khilji
dynasty. The rule of this dynasty started in 1290 A.D. Ala-ud-din
Khilji, a nephew of Jalal-ud-din Khilji hatched a conspiracy and got
Sultan Jalal-ud-din killed and proclaimed himself as the Sultan in 1296.
Ala-ud-din Khilji was the first Muslim ruler whose empire covered
almost whole of India up to its extreme south. He fought many battles,
conquered Gujarat, Ranthambhor, Chittor, Malwa, and Deccan. During his
reign of 20 years, Mongols invaded the country several times but were
successfully repulsed. From these invasion Alla-ud-din Khilji learnt the
lessons of keeping himself prepared, by fortifying and organizing his
armed forces. Alla-ud-din died in 1316 A.D., and with his death, the
Khilji dynasty came to an end.
The Tughlaq Dynasty
Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, who was the Governor of Punjab during the reign
of Ala-ud-din Khilji, ascended the throne in 1320 A.D. and founded the
Tughlaq dynasty. He conquered Warrangal and put down a revolt in Bengal.
Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq succeeded his father and extended the kingdom
beyond India, into Central Asia. Mongols invaded India during Tughlaq
rule, and were defeated this time too.
Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq first shifted his capital from Delhi to Devagiri
in Deccan. However, it had to be shifted back within two years. He
inherited a massive empire but lost many of its provinces, more
particularly Deccan and Bengal. He died in 1351 A.D. and his cousin,
Feroz Tughlaq succeeded him.
Feroz Tughlaq did not contribute much to expand the territories of
the empire, which he inherited. He devoted much of his energy to the
betterment of the people. After his death in 1388, the Tughlaq dynasty
came virtually to an end. Although the Tughlaqs continued to reign till
1412, the invasion of Delhi by Timur in 1398 may be said to mark the end
of the Tughlaq empire.
Timur's Invasion
It was during the reign of the last king of the Tughlaq dynasty that
the mighty king Timur or Tamerlane invaded India in 1398 A.D. He crossed
Indus and captured Multan, and just walked over to Delhi without much
resistance.
Sayyid Dynasty
Then came the Sayyid dynasty founded by Khizar Khan. The Sayyids
ruled from about 1414 A.D. to 1450 A.D. Khizar Khan ruled for about 37
years. Last in Sayyid dynasty was Muhammad-bin-Farid. During his reign
there was confusion and revolts. The empire came to an end in 1451 A.D.
with his death.
Lodhi Dynasty
Buhlul Khan Lodhi (1451-1489 A.D.)
He was the first king and the founder of the Lodhi dynasty. With a
view to restoring the Delhi Sultanate its past glory, he conquered many
territories including the powerful kingdom of Jaunpur. Buhlul Khan
extended his territories over Gwalior, Jaunpur and Uttar Pradesh.
Sikander Khan Lodhi (1489-1517 A.D.)
After Buhlul Khan's death, his second son Nizam Shah was proclaimed
the king, under the title of Sultan Sikander Shah, in 1489. He made all
efforts to strengthen his kingdom and extended his kingdom from Punjab
to Bihar. He was a good administrator and a patron of arts and letters.
He died in 1517 A.D.
Ibrahim Khan Lodhi (1489-1517 A.D.)
After the death of Sikandar, his son Ibrahim ascended the throne.
Ibrahim Lodhi did not prove to be an able ruler. He became more and more
strict with the nobles. He used to insult them. Thus, to take revenge
of their insults, Daulat Khan Lodhi, governor of Lahore and Alam Khan,
an uncle of Sultan Ibrahim Lodhi, invited Babar, the ruler of Kabul, to
invade India. Ibrahim Lodhi was killed at Panipat in 1526 A.D. by
Babar's army. Thus came the final collapse of Delhi Sultanate and paved
the establishment of Mughal Empire in India.
Vijayanagar Empire
When Muhammad Tughlaq was losing his power in Deccan, the two Hindu
princes, Harihar and Bukka founded an independent kingdom in the region
between the river Krishna and Tungabhadra in 1336. They soon established
their sway over the entire territory between the rivers Krishna in the
north and Cauveri in the south. The rising powers of the Vijayanagar
empire brought it into clash with many powers and they frequently fought
wars with the Bahmani kingdom.
The most famous king of the Vijaynagara Empire was Krishnadeva Raya.
The Vijayanagar kingdom reached the pinnacle of its glory during his
reign. He was successful in all the wars he waged. He defeated the king
of Odisha and annexed Vijaywada and Rajmahendri.
Krishnadeva Raya encouraged trade with the western countries. He had a
cordial relationship with the Portuguese who had at that time
established trade centres on the west coast of India. He was not only a
great warrior, but was also a playwright and a great patron of learning.
Telegu literature flourished under him. Painting, sculpture, dance and
music were greatly encouraged by him and his successors. He endeared
himself to the people by his personal charm, kindness, and an ideal
administration.
The decline of the Vijayanagar kingdom began with the death of
Krishnadeva Raya in 1529. The kingdom came to an end in 1565, when
Ramrai was defeated at Talikota by the joint efforts of Adilshahi,
Nizamshahi, Qutubshahi and Baridshahi. After this, the kingdom broke
into small states.
Bahmani Kingdom
The Muslim kingdom of Bahmani was established by some nobles of the
Deccan who revolted against the repressive policies of Sultan Muhammed
Tughlaq. In 1347, Hasan became the king under the title Abdul Muzaffar
Ala-Ud-Din Bahman Shah and founded the Bahmani dynasty. This dynasty
lasted for about 175 years and had 18 rulers. At the height of its
glory, the Bahmani kingdom extended from north of Krishna river up to
Narmada, and stretched east-west from the coasts of the Bay of Bengal to
the Arabian Sea. The rulers of Bahmani were often at war with the
neighbouring Hindu kingdom Vijayanagar.
The most distinguished figure of the Bahmani kingdom was Mahmud
Gawan, who was the principal minister of the state - Amir-ul-ulmra for
over two decades. He fought many wars, subdued many kings and annexed
many territories to the Bahmani kingdom. Within the kingdom, he improved
the administration, organized finances, encouraged public education,
reformed revenue system, disciplined army and removed corruption. A man
of character and integrity, he was held in high esteem by the Deccani
group of nobles, especially Nizam-ul-Mulk, and their machinations led to
his execution. With this, started the decline of the Bahmani empire,
which came to an end with the death of its last king Kalimullah in 1527.
Thereafter, Bahmani Empire was disintegrated into five regional
independent principalities - Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Berar, Bidar and
Golkonda.
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